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it is very essential and important for the citizens of our country both from the side of our prestige as a nation and from the military necessity that the present challenge [sputnik] be solved by a vigorous program of research and development for the conquest of space ... It is accordingly proposed that special studies be entrusted on a national civilian agency ... Naca is able, through rapid expansion and expansion of its own efforts, to provide leadership in space technology. [45]
in the hour that the new federal agency would be concerned about all non-military space activities, the advanced research projects agency (arpa) was formed in the late winter of 1958 to develop space technology for military applications. .[46]
On on july 29, 1958, eisenhower signed the national aeronautics and space act into law, establishing nasa. When it went live on october 1, 1958, nasa absorbed the 43-year-old naca unchanged; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of one hundred percent millions of us dollars, three large research laboratories (langley aeronautical laboratory, ames aeronautical laboratory and lewis flight engine laboratory) and two small test facilities. Elements of the army ballistic missile agency and the naval research laboratory of america were included in the nasa preparatory process. A significant contribution to nasa's participation in the space race with the soviet union was the technology of the german rocket program under wernher von braun, who now worked for the army ballistic missile agency (abma), which, meanwhile, used technology from american scientist robert goddard's earlier work. Earlier us air force studies[48] and many of the first arpa space programs were also donated to nasa[50]. In december 1958, nasa received regulation from the jet propulsion laboratory, a caltech contractor.[48]
Former administrators
Nasa the first administrator was dr. T. Keith glennan , nominated by president dwight d. Eisenhower. During his term (1958-1961) he brought together the disparate projects of american space research.[51] james webb ran the agency during the development of the apollo program in the 1960s. James s. Fletcher held the position twice; first during the nixon administration in the 1970s, and then at the urging of ronald reagan after the challenger disaster. Daniel goldin has held this position for almost ten centuries and is the longest-serving administrator to date. He is best known for pioneering the "faster, better, cheaper" approach to space programs. Bill nelson is currently the 14th administrator of nasa.
Insignia
The nasa seal was approved by eisenhower in 1959 and slightly modified by president john f. Kennedy in 1961. The first nasa logo was created by the head of lewis research reports, james modarelli, as a simplification of a 1959 seal. In 1975, the original logo was first named "meatball" to distinguish it from the newly designed "worm" logo that replaced it. "Meatballs" came into official use in 1992. The worm was brought out of retirement by administrator jim bridenstine in 2020. Political direction of the agency's ten field centers through which all other facilities are administered. Aerodynamic research into the aerodynamics of propeller-driven aircraft, as well as discoveries and technologies in the field of aeronautics, interstellar flights and digital technologies. It provides leadership in astrobiology, small satellites, robotic lunar exploration, intelligent/adaptive systems, and thermal protection.
The armstrong flight research center (afrc) is located at edwards air force base and is home to the shuttle carrier aircraft (sca), a modified boeing 747 designed to carry the space shuttle back to kennedy space center after landing at edwards afb. The center is dedicated to flight testing of advanced aerospace systems.
The glenn research center remains in cleveland, ohio. Conversion, microgravity and innovative materials.[61]
The goddard interstellar flight center (gsfc), located in greenbelt, maryland, develops and operates unmanned science spacecraft.[62] gsfc also operates two extraterrestrial flight tracking and data generation networks (space network and near-earth world wide web), develops and provides advanced information systems for space and earth sciences, but also develops satellite designs for the national oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa) .[62]
The johnson space center (jsc) is nasa's center for manned interstellar flight training, research, and mission control.[63] it is home to the united states astronaut corps and guarantees training for united states astronauts and telephone international partners, but also includes the christopher c. Kraft jr. Mission control center. The ao also operates a white sands test facility in las cruces, new mexico, to support missile testing.
The jet propulsion laboratory (jpl), located near the san gabriel valley of los angeles county, c and builds and operates robotic planetary spacecraft, although it still operates orbital and astronomical missions. He is also responsible for nasa's deep space network (dsn).
The langley research center (larc), based in hampton, virginia, has two of its three programs in aeronautics and the other in space. Larc researchers use more than 40 wind tunnels to improve the safety, capacity and efficiency of aircraft and spacecraft. The center was also home to the first manned interstellar flights, including the crew featured in the hidden figures story. , Has been the launch pad for every manned spaceflight in america since 1968. Ksc also manages and operates the uncrewed rocket launch option for america's civilian space program from three sites at cape canaveral.[67]
The marshall extraterrestrial flight center (msfc), located at redstone arsenal near huntsville, alabama, is one of nasa's flagship centers and is leading the development of a space launch system in support of the artemis program. Marshall is nasa's lead center for the design and assembly of the international space station (iss); workload and good crew training; and was the lead engine of the space shuttle and the concrete outer tank. Pearl river at the junction of the mississippi and louisiana. Recorded in service in october 1961, it is currently suitable for missile testing by more than 30 local, state, national, international, private and government companies and agencies. It also houses the nasa shared services center. >Nasa has inherited the x-15 experimental hypersonic research aircraft, developed by nasa together with the us air force and navy. Since 1955 there have been three aircraft. The x-15 was launched by being dropped from the wing of one of two nasa boeing b-52 stratofortress tail numbers nb52a 52-003 and nb52b tail number 52-008 (known as balls . The release took place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and a speed of about five hundred miles per hour (805 km*h).[73]
Twelve a total of 199 flights were flown between june 1959 and december 1968 by air force, wms and naca, totaling the official world record for the highest speed ever achieved by a crewed aircraft (as of as of 2014 [updated and high-speed mach 6.72, 4519. Miles per time (7273 kmh).[74] the altitude record for the x-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km) [75]. Eight pilots have been awarded air force astronaut wings for flights over 260,000 feet (80 kilometers) perfect, and two joseph a. Walker flights have exceeded 100 kilometers (330,000 feet), which qualifies as a spaceflight according to the international aviation federation in the x-15 program mechanical methods used in later crewed interstellar flight programs were used m, including a jet reaction control system for coordinating the orientation of the spacecraft, space suits and determining the horizon for navigation. The information collected about reentry and landing was valuable to nasa in the development of the space shuttle. The engineering space task group to drive their human spaceflight programs under the direction of robert gilruth. Their most recent programs were driven by competition from the us and the cold war soviet union. Nasa inherited the usaf's "man in space soonest" program, which considered hundreds of crewed spacecraft objects, from rocket planes like the x-15 to small ballistic space capsules. By 1958, the spaceplane concept was abandoned in favor of a ballistic capsule, and nasa renamed it the mercury program. The first seven cosmonauts were selected from candidates from the navy, air force, and marine corps test pilot programs. On may 5, 1961, astronaut alan shepard became the first american in interstellar space aboard a capsule, he named freedom 7, launched on a redstone booster during a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight.John glenn became the first american to be launched into orbit on an atlas launch vehicle on february 20, 1962 aboard friendship 7.[80] glenn made three orbits, only after all this there were 3 more orbital flights, culminating in the 22-orbit flight of l. Gordon cooper faith 7, may 15-16, 1963. [81] katherine johnson, mary jackson and dorothy vaughan were three human computers who performed trajectory calculations during the space race. Johnson was ideally known for her trajectory calculations for the john glenn mission in 1962, when she manually calculated the same equations as on a computer. Soyuz (ussr) - single-pilot vostok spacecraft. They sent the first man into space, cosmonaut yuri gagarin, into a single earth orbit aboard vostok 1 in april 1961, a month before shepard's flight. In august 1962, they made an almost four-day record flight with andrian nikolaev aboard vostok-three, and also conducted a parallel vostok-4 mission with pavel popovich. )
Based on research to expand the capabilities of the mercury spacecraft for long-range missions, the development of space consolidation techniques, and precision landing operations, project gemini was launched as a two-person program in 1961 year to overcome the leadership recommendations and resuscitate the planned apollo lunar landing program, adding eva, rendezvous and docking to its goals. The first crewed gemini flight, the gemini 3, was made by gus grissom and john young on march 23, 1965. Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission lasting almost fourteen days, rendezvous, docking and demonstrative connection with outer space, and collecting medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans. Under the leadership of soviet premier nikita khrushchev, the ussr competed with gemini by converting their vostok spacecraft into a two or three seat voskhod. They managed to launch two crewed flights before the nearest gemini flight, flying with three astronauts in 1964 and the first eva in 1965. After these formalities, the program was curtailed, and the twins pulled themselves up, while the designer of sergei korolev developed the soyuz spacecraft, their answer to apollo.
Apollo (1960-1972)
The american public's perception of the soviet frontiers in the space race (by sending the first observer into space) prompted president john f. Kennedy[91] to petition congress on may 25, 1961 to oblige the federal government to land a man on the moon at the end 1960s, which actually launched the apollo program.[92]
Apollo was one of the most expensive american science channels in its entire existence. It cost more than 20 billion greenbacks in 1960s dollars[93] or about $236 billion in new us dollars.[94] (by comparison, the manhattan project cost something like $30.1 billion adjusted for inflation.) Gemini programs.[96] they were used to launch the apollo spacecraft, which consisted of a command and service module (csm) and a lunar module (lm). Csm ferried astronauts from earth to lunar orbit and back, and the lunar module landed them on the moon itself. For the apollo 204 mission (later renamed apollo 1). The second crewed mission, apollo 8, first carried astronauts around the moon in december 1968. Shortly before, the soviets sent an uncrewed spacecraft around the moon.[99] the next two missions (apollo nine and apollo 10) practiced the integration maneuvers and dockings needed to land on the moon. First people on the moon. Astronauts neil armstrong and buzz aldrin walked on the lunar surface conducting experiments and collecting samples, while michael collins orbited higher in csm. Six subsequent apollo missions (12 to 17) were launched; five of them were successful, and one (apollo 13) was aborted as soon as the astronauts died due to fire, in flight. Throughoutduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringin duringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduringduring duringduringduringduringduringduring of these seven extraterrestrial apollo flights, twelve people walked on the moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific information and 381.7 kg (842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered in experiments included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar location, magnetic fields, and solar wind.The moon landing marked the end of the space race, and as a gesture, armstrong mentioned humanity when he stepped on the moon. The n-1 exploded with a fireball on the main site, at baikonur in the republic of kazakhstan, destroying any of several launch sites. Any of the first four launches of the n-1 immediately ended in failure before the completion of the first stage flight, which practically made it impossible for the ussr to supply the systems necessary for crewed moon landings.[105]
apollo set important milestones in fantastic human flight. It stands apart, sending crewed missions beyond low earth orbit and landing fellow citizens on another celestial body. Apollo 8 was the first crewed spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, and apollo 17 marked the last lunar landing and last crewed mission beyond the boundary of low earth orbit. The program has spurred advances in a number of technology areas peripheral to rocketry and human spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and laptops. Apollo sparked interest in a host of areas of equipment and left many of the private facilities and vehicles built for the application as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the app are on display in every region around the world, such as the smithsonian air and space museum.
Skylab (1965–1979)
skylab was the first and only self-built space station in the united states.[107] conceived in 1965 as a workshop that is built in interstellar space from a spent saturn ib upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was surface-mounted and launched on may 14, 1973 on the weak two stages of a saturn v. A 235 nautical miles (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch under the pretext of losing thermal protection and the most significant solar panel generating electricity, it was restored to service by the first crew. In 1973 and 1974 he was occupied for a total of 171 days by three consecutive crews. It included a laboratory for researching the effects of microgravity and a solar observatory. Nasa planned to dock with the space shuttle under development and boost skylab to a new safe altitude, but the shuttle was not left ready for flight until the re-opening of the atmosphere and skylab's death on july 11, 1979. >To save money, nasa modified any of the saturn v rockets originally intended for the canceled apollo mission to launch a skylab, which itself was a modified saturn v fuel tank. The apollo spacecraft, launched on flimsy saturn-ib rockets, was used to ferry astronauts to and from the station. Three crews of three people were on board the station for 28, 59 and 84 days. The skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet (320 m3), using 30.7 times the service of the apollo command module.[108]
Space transportation services (1969–1972)
In february 1969, president richard nixon appointed a space research group, headed by vice president spiro agnew, to recommend human spaceflight projects beyond apollo. The group responded in september with the integrated program plan (ipp), which is designed to preserve space stations on the surface and lunar orbit, a base on the outer side of the moon, and a human landing on mars. The calculation will be supported by replacing nasa's existing expendable launch systems with reusable infrastructure, including earth-orbiting shuttles, space tugs, and nuclear-powered translunar and interplanetary shuttles. Despite the enthusiastic support of agnew and nasa administrator thomas o. Paine, nixon recognized public enthusiasm, which translated into support for congress, as the space program declined as apollo neared its apogee, and put a ban on most such plans, except for the earth orbital shuttle. And the delayed earth space station.[109]
Apollo soyuz (1972-1975)
May 24, 1972, us president richard m. Nixon and prime minister soviet minister alexei kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint crewed space mission and declaring the intention that every future international crewed spacecraft could dock with each other. This authorized the apollo-soyuz test project (astp) involving the rendezvous and docking in earth orbit of a redundant apollo command and service module with a soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place in july 1975. This was the last observer flight into us space before the next orbital flight of the space shuttle in april 1981.[111]
The mission included both collaborative, similarly specific science experiments.And provided a useful engineering skill for tomorrow's joint us-russian extraterrestrial flights, such as the shuttle-mir program[112] and the international space station.
Space shuttle (1972-2011) The space shuttle was the only vehicle in development in the space transportation scheme, and risk was the main activity of nasa in the late 1970s and 1980s. Originally planned as a frequently launched, fully reusable vehicle, the design was modified to use a disposable external fuel tank to reduce development costs, and by 1985 there were four space shuttle orbiters. 1981, the 20th anniversary of the first flight of anyone into space.[113]
The shuttle made 135 missions and brought 355 astronauts from 16 countries, most of them made several flights. Its key components were the orbital spaceplane with surrounding fuel tank and two solid rocket launchers on the side. The outer tank, which was larger than the spacecraft itself, was the only critical component that was not reused. The shuttle could spin an ideal 185-643 km (115-400 miles)[114] and carry a maximum payload to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb)[115]. The missions could last from 5 to 17 days, and the crews could consist of 2 to 8 astronauts. European space agency (esa). The spacelab was not geared towards solo orbital flight, but was kept in the shuttle's cargo hold as the astronauts entered and exited it through the airlock. On june 18, 1983, sally ride became the first american woman to travel to interstellar space aboard the space shuttle challenger sts-7. Another well-known series of missions was the launch and then successful repair of the hubble space telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.[118]
". Missions (1995-1998). Again the american ship docked with the russian ship, at this step a full-fledged space station. This collaboration continues with russia and the united states as the two biggest men in building the largest space station: the international space station (iss).[119] the strength of their collaboration on the game project became more apparent when nasa began to rely on russian launch vehicles to service the iss during the two-year shuttle fleet landing after the space shuttle columbia disaster in 2003.
the shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: the challenger in 1986 and the columbia in 2003. While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building space shuttle endeavor from the parts you need, nasa did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss. Nasa's space shuttle program had 135 missions when the program culminated in the successful landing of space shuttle atlantis at kennedy space center on july 21, 2011. The program lasted 30 years and sent 355 individual astronauts into space, most of them on multiple missions. 121]
Constellation (2005-2010)
While the space shuttle program has so far been suspended following the loss of columbia, president george w. Bush announced a concept for space exploration, including the decommissioning of the space shuttle, later the international space station. The plan was enacted into law by the nasa authorization act of 2005 and directs nasa to develop and launch a crewed exploration vehicle (later named orion) by 2010, return americans to the moon by this year, land on mars as far as possible, repair hubble spacecraft. Telescope and prolong technologies through robotic exploration of space objects, the presence of a subordinate on the iss, observation of the soil layer and astrophysical research. The goals of the crewed study led nasa to the constellation program.
December 4, 2006, nasa announced that it plans to establish a permanent base on the moon. The goal was to start building a lunar base by this year, and by 2024 have a fully functional base that would allow crew changes and deploy resources at home. However, in 2009 the augustine committee found that the program was on an "unsustainable trajectory". >journey to mars (2010-2017)
President obama's plan was to build us private extraterrestrial travel capabilities to bring astronauts to the international space station, replace russian soyuz capsules, and operate on capsules "orion" for emergency assistance to the iss. Escape goals. During a speech at the kennedy space center on april 15, 2010, obama proposed a new high-lift vehicle (hlv) to replace the previously planned ares v.In his speech, obama called for a manned mission to the asteroid as early as 2025, and to orbit mars by the mid-2030s.[126] the nasa authorization act of 2010 was passed by congress and goes into effect october 11, 2010.[127] the law officially abolished the constellation program. The launch vehicle is named space launch system. The new act also required the construction of a spacecraft beyond low earth orbit.[128] the orion spacecraft, which is being developed as part of the constellation project, was chosen to play this role.[129] it is planned that the space launch system will launch like orion, never before other necessary equipment for flights beyond low earth orbit. Sls will gradually be updated with more powerful versions. The initial capacity of the sls was needed to lift 70 t (150,000 lb) (later 95 t or 209,000 lb) to leo. Then it is planned to increase it to 105 tons (231,000 pounds), and then eventually to 130 tons (290,000 pounds).[129][131] the orion capsule first entered the atmosphere during uncrewed test flight 1 (eft-1), which was created on december 5, 2014 on a delta iv heavy rocket.[131]
Nasa conducted a feasibility study founding in year twelfth and developed the asteroid redirection mission as an unmanned mission to move a boulder-sized near-earth asteroid (or a chunk of a larger boulder-sized asteroid) into lunar orbit. The mission will demonstrate ion propulsion technology and develop methods that could be used for planetary asteroid impact protection, beanbags are suitable for transporting payloads to mars in support of a future human mission. Later, astronauts can visit a boulder orbiting the moon. The asteroid redirect mission was canceled in the new year by nasa's fiscal year 2018 budget components. This is the first mission under president donald trump. > nasa has conducted many unmanned and robotic extraterrestrial flights throughout its history. Unmanned robotic programs launched the first american artificial satellites into earth orbit for technological and any other purposes and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, counting from venus and mars, including "grand surfs in the outer planets. More than a thousand unmanned missions have been created to explore the soil and the solar system.[133]
The first unmanned satellite in the us was explorer 1, which began as an abma/jpl project at the dawn of the space race. It appeared in january 1958, a month and a half after the release of the satellite. During the development of nasa, the explorer project was transferred to the agency and is still ongoing. His missions focused on the earth and the sun, measuring magnetic courts and the solar wind, among other aspects. And in the vicinity of the moon. Ranger 7 successfully transmitted images of the moon in july 1964, followed by two more successful missions. Syncom 3 was the first geostationary satellite. It was an experimental geosynchronous communications satellite located over the equator at 180 degrees longitude in the pacific ocean. The satellite provided live television coverage of the 1964 olympic games in tokyo, japan and conducted various communications tests. On january 1, 1965, operations were transferred to the department of defense; syncom 3 was hired to prove to be relevant for us department of defense communications in vietnam. Programs such as syncom, telstar, and applications technology satellites (ats) demonstrated the usefulness of communications satellites and enabled early telephone and video satellite transmission.[137]
Planetary exploration
The study of mercury, venus or mars has been the goal of more than 10 unmanaged nasa programs. The first was the mariner in the 1960s and 1970s, which made several visits to venus and mars, and most importantly to mercury. Probes launched under the mariner project were also the first to fly around the planet (mariner 2), took the first photographs from an interesting planet (mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (mariner 9 and the first to perform a gravity assist maneuver (mariner 10) this is a variant where the satellite uses the gravity and speed of the planets to reach the end point surface.[139] the messenger orbited mercury between 2011 and 2015 one year after completing a 6.5-year journey involving a complex a series of flybys of venus and mercury to slow down just enough to orbit mercury.Messenger became the first spacecraft to orbit mercury and used its scientific payload to study mercury's surface composition, geological history, internal magnetic field and confirmed that as such, polar sediments are composed predominantly of water ice.[140]
From 1966 to 1968, the lunar orbiter and surveyor missions provided higher level photographs and other measurements to pave the way for apollo manned missions to the moon.Clementine spent a couple of months mapping the moon in 1994, before moving on to internal mission objectives. Since 1998, the lunar prospector has spent 19 months mapping the composition of the lunar surface and searching for polar ice.[143]
The first successful landing on mars was by viking 1 in 1976. Viking 2 followed a month and a half later. Later. Twenty years later, the sojourner rover was landed on mars by the mars pathfinder.[144]
After mars, jupiter first visited pioneer 10 in 1973. Since 1997, galileo has sent a probe to mars. Planet's atmosphere and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet. Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit saturn in 1979, and voyager 2 made its first (and only) visits to uranus and neptune in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave our star system, was pioneer 10 in 1983. For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but has since been surpassed by voyager 1 and voyager 2.[146]
pioneers 10 and 11 and that and another voyager probe transmit messages from earth to extraterrestrial life. Communication happens to be difficult when traveling into deep space. For example, it took about three hours for the radio signal to reach the new horizons spacecraft, if it was longer than it was in the early stages to pluto.[149] contact with pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both voyager probes continue to operate, exploring the outer boundary between the solar system and interstellar space.[150]
Nasa continued to support in situ studies beyond. The asteroid belt, including pioneer and voyager, are traversing the uncharted region beyond pluto, while the giant orbiters galileo (1989-2003) and cassini (1997-2017) are exploring the jupiter and saturn systems, respectively .
heliophysics
The missions below represent automated extraterrestrial vehicles that exist delivered and operated by nasa to view the heliosphere. The helios a and helios b missions were launched in the 1970s to study sunlight and were the first spacecraft to orbit inside mercury's orbit. The fast auroral snapshot explorer (fast) mission was launched in august 1996 and was the second smex mission to be launched into orbit. He studied the aurora zones near each pole while receiving it in a highly elliptical orbit. The first spacecraft designed to operate at the earth-sun l1 libration site. He has been studying solar-terrestrial relations for decades. Ongoing missions pursue ongoing science challenges with more than five extraterrestrial bodies near space objects - the moon (lunar reconnaissance orbiter), mars (the perseverance rover), jupiter (juno), the asteroid bennu (osiris-rex) and kuiper belt things ( new horizons). The extended juno mission will make multiple flybys of jupiter's moon io in 2023 and 2024, following flybys of ganymede in 2021 and the west in 2022. Voyager 1 and voyager 2 continue to bring science data back to earth while continuing their own journey into the interstellar space.
On november 26, 2011, nasa's mars science laboratory mission was successfully launched to mars. The curiosity rover successfully landed on mars on august 6, 2012, after which it searched for evidence of past or present existence on mars.[207][208][209]
In september 2014, the spacecraft nasa's maven, part of the mars scout program, has successfully orbited mars and, as of october 2022, continues to study the martian atmosphere. Nasa's ongoing mars exploration includes in-depth exploration of mars through the perseverance and insight rover).
Nasa's europa clipper spacecraft, scheduled to launch in october 2024, will study the galilean moon europa with a series of flybys in orbit around jupiter. Dragonfly will send a mobile robotic vertibird to titan, saturn's largest moon.[212] as of may 2021, the launch of the dragonfly is scheduled for june 2027.[213][214]
Astrophysics missions
Astrophysics division nasa science mission directorate agency portfolio in astrophysics. Nasa has invested heavily in the development, delivery, and operation of space telescopes in a variety of configurations. These telescopes have provided cosmetics for exploring the cosmos in a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Research physicists around the world. The first of these, the hubble space telescope, was brought into orbit in 1990 and continues to function, thanks in part to previous maintenance missions carried out by the space shuttle. The other large observatory that remains active includes the chandra x-ray observatory (cxo), launched by sts-93 in july 1999.And now in a 64-hour elliptical orbit, studying x-ray sources that are almost impossible to see from ground-based observatories. 218]
The imaging x-ray polarimetry explorer (ixpe) is a space-based observatory suitable for improving the understanding of x-ray production in objects like neutron stars and pulsar wind nebulae, but also stellar and supermassive black holes.[219] ixpe launched in december 2021 and is an international link between nasa and the italian space agency (asi). These are part of nasa's small explorers (smex) program, which is developing low-cost extraterrestrial simulators for studying heliophysics and astrophysics. - A burst observatory that also monitors the x-ray and ultraviolet/visible afterglow at the site of the burst.[221] the mission was conceived through a collaborative collaboration between the goddard space flight center (gsfc) and a worldwide consortium of us, uk and italy. Pennsylvania state university is operating this mission under nasa's medium explorer (midex) project mode.[222]
The fermi gamma-ray space telescope (fgst) is another space telescope launched into low earth orbit in june 2008 and it is used to make gamma-ray astronomical observations.[223] in addition to nasa, the us department of energy and the government agencies of france, germany, italy, japan, and sweden are participating in the mission.[224]
James webb space telescope (jwst) ), launched in december 2021 on rocket ariane 5, operates in a halo orbit around the point l2 sun-earth. Jwst's increased infrared sensitivity and image reference will allow it to see more distant, fainter, or older objects than its predecessors, including hubble.[228]
Earth science program missions (1965 -current)
Nasa's earth sciences is a major umbrella program involving a range of ground and space based data acquisition systems to better understand the ground layer system along with its response to natural and human impacts. Changes. Over several decades, numerous systems have been created and put into service that provide improved forecasting of weather, climate and other changes in the natural environment. Many of the current active spacecraft programs include: aqua, [229] aura, [230] orbiting carbon observatory 2 (oco-2), [231] gravity recovery and climate experiment follow-on (grace fo), [232] and ice . Cloud-earth observation satellite 2 (icesat-2).[233]
In addition to the systems already in orbit, nasa is developing a new set of seedbed surveillance systems to study, evaluate and generate real-time responses to climate change, natural disasters, wildfires, and agricultural activities.[234] the goes-t satellite (renamed goes-18 upon launch) joined the us fleet of geostationary weather diagnostic satellites in march 2022.[235]
Nasa also supports the earth science materials systems program (esds) to monitor the lifecycle of nasa earth science data from acquisition to processing and dissemination. Esds' primary mission is to maximize the scientific return on nasa's goals and experiments for researchers and applied scientists, decision makers, and society at large.[236]
The earth sciences program is managed by the division geosciences office of nasa science mission.
Space operations architecture
Nasa invests in a variety of ground and space infrastructures to support its science and research mandate. The agency is in touch with suborbital and orbital space launch capabilities and is accepting ideas for ground stations to support its growing fleet of spacecraft and remote systems.
Deep space network (1963 to present)
The nasa deep space network (dsn) serves as a key ground station for nasa interplanetary spacecraft and some earth orbit missions.[237] the network uses ground station complexes near barstow, california in the united states, in spain near madrid, and in australia near canberra. Placing these ground stations about 120 degrees apart around the planet will enable communication with spacecraft throughout the solar system, even as the earth rotates on its axis on a daily basis. The system is operated at a continuous operations center at the jet propulsion laboratory in pasadena, california, which manages repetitive relationship channels with 40 spacecraft. The system is operated by the jet propulsion laboratory (jpl).) Provides telemetry, control, ground tracking, data and communications services to a wide range of customers with satellites in low earth orbit (leo), geosynchronous orbit (geo), highly elliptical orbits (heo) and lunar orbits. Nsn integrates ground station and antenna assets from a near-earth network and satellite tracking and data relay system (tdrs) operating in geosynchronous orbit, providing real-time continuous floor coverage for nasa launch vehicles and missions in low earth orbit.[239] Nsn consists of 19 ground stations around the world, operated by the us government and contractors including kongsberg satellite services (ksat), the swedish space corporation (ssc) and south africa's national nasa (sansa). [240] the terrestrial world wide web provides approximately 120 to 150 spacecraft contacts per day, but tdrs interacts with systems almost continuously as needed; the system is managed and operated by the goddard space flight center. Nsrp) is located at the wallops flight facility and assists with launch, payload design and integration, and support for field operations for suborbital missions. The program has been in operation since 1959 and is operated by the goddard center for extraterrestrial flight with the help of a joint team of the american government and a contractor.[243] the nsrp team conducts approximately 20 missions per year from both wallops and other launch sites around the world so that scientists can collect information "where it happens." The program supports the science mission directorate's strategic vision of destroying serious scientific records for the geoscience, heliophysics, and astrophysics programs.[242]
In june 2022, nasa completed its 1st rocket launch from a commercial spaceport outside the usa. He launched the black brant ix from the arnhem space center in australia. (Lsp) guarantees the procurement of launch services for nasa unmanned missions and oversees launch integration and launch preparation, providing added professionalism and assurance of mission functionality to meet program objectives. Since 1990, nasa has been purchasing expendable launch vehicle orders directly from commercial vendors when it comes to undeniably our science and applications missions. Disposable launch vehicles manage to arrive at all types of orbital inclinations and altitudes and serve as ideal vehicles for low-earth orbit launches and interplanetary missions. Lsp operates from the kennedy space center and is run by the nasa space operations directorate (somd). The mission directorate (armd) was and remains one of the five mission directorates at nasa, the other four being the mission directorate for research systems development, mission directorate for space operations, science mission directorate, and space technology mission coordination. Armd is responsible for nasa aeronautical research that benefits the commercial, military, and aviation sectors. Armd conducts aeronautical research at four nasa sites: the ames research center and the armstrong flight research center in major cities, the glenn research center in ohio, and the langley research center in virginia.[249]
Nasa x-57 maxwell aircraft (2016 to present)
X-57 maxwell is an experimental aircraft under development by nasa to showcase the technology needed to build a highly efficient all-electric aircraft.[250] the program's mission is to develop and deliver all-electric technology solutions that are also able to pass airworthiness certification from regulatory authorities. The program contains the development of the system in several stages or variants to gradually increase the capabilities - and survivability of the system. The aircraft's initial configuration has already completed ground testing as it approaches its first flights. In the middle of 2022, the kh-57 was hired to take to the air in its entirety and in full year[251]. The development team includes employees from nasa's armstrong, glenn and langley centers, as well as some industry partners from the us and italy. )
Nasa is working with the faa and outsiders in the area to modernize the us national airspace system (nas). Efforts began in 2007 to have all the modernization ingredients in place by 2025. Modernization efforts are focused on increasing the safety, efficiency, capacity, access, flexibility, predictability, and sustainability of nas, while at the same time reducing aviation's environmental impact.[254] the nasa ames aviation systems division operates a joint nasa/faa research station in north texas. The station supports all stages of nextgen research, from concept development to field evaluation of a system prototype.This facility has already transferred advanced design and technology to nextgen for use through faa technology transfer.[253] nasa's contributions also include the development of advanced automation concepts and tools that provide air traffic controllers, pilots and alternative airspace users with more accurate time-based data on country airflow, weather and routes. Ames' advanced airspace modeling and simulation tools have been widely used to model us air traffic flows, and beyond that to analyze new airspace design concepts, traffic flow management, and optimization.[255]
Technology research
Nuclear space power and propulsion in progress)
Nasa has used technologies such as the multipurpose radioisotope thermoelectric generator (mmrtg), a type of radioisotope thermoelectric generator, used to feed spacecraft.[256] shortages of needed plutonium-238 led to a reduction in deep space missions for the first millennium.[257] an example of a spacecraft that was not created due to a shortage of this material was new horizons 2.
In july 2021, nasa announced the award of a contract to think through nuclear thermal propulsion reactors. The three contractors will develop original designs within 12 months for further evaluation by nasa and the us department of energy. Nasa's space nuclear technology portfolio is led and funded by the office of high technology.
Other initiatives
Free space optics. Nasa contracted with a third party to review the likelihood of using free space optics (fso) to contact optical (laser) stations in the area (ogs), called rf laser communications networks for satellite communications.[259]
Extraction of water from the lunar soil. On july 29, 2020, nasa asked american universities to offer innovations in the extraction of liquid from the lunar soil - and the development of energy systems. This idea will help the space agency conduct sustainable lunar exploration. Hrp) is focused on studying the impact of space on human well-being, as well as providing countermeasures and methodologies for human space exploration. The medical implications of space exploration are reasonably limited in low earth orbit or on missions to the moon. However, the flight to mars is much longer and deeper into space, which can lead to overwhelming health problems. This includes bone loss, radiation exposure, vision changes, circadian rhythm disturbances, cardiac remodeling, and immune changes. In order to study and diagnose these complications, before hrp it was necessary to define or develop small portable devices with low mass, volume and power for admiring the health of astronauts.[261] for this similar purpose, on may 13, 2022, nasa and spacex crew-4 astronauts successfully tested the rhealth one universal biomedical analyzer for its ability to identify and analyze biomarkers, cells, microorganisms, and proteins in space flight conditions.[262]
Planetary defense (2016-present)
In 2016, nasa established the planetary defense coordination office (pdco) to catalog and monitor potentially threatening near-earth objects (neo ) such as asteroids and planets and are developing potential responses and costs of preventing these threats.[263] pdco is intended to provide timely and comprehensive information to the government and the public about the proximity of potentially hazardous areas (pho) and any potential impact. The office functions within the framework of the department of planetary sciences of the science mission directorate. Neos for many years in project mode called spaceguard.[265]
Near-earth object detection (long time to present)
Since the 1990s over the years, nasa has carried out many manipulations to detect neos. Earth base observatory programs, which significantly expands the number of detected objects. However, many asteroids are very dark, and anything close to the sun is much harder to find with ground-based telescopes that observe at night and in a similar way, facing away from the sun. Neos in earth orbit also reflect only some of the light, and not the potentially "full moon" when those are behind the beds and fully illuminated by the sun.
In 1998, the us congress gave nasa the task of detecting 90% of near-earth asteroids larger than 1 km (0.62 miles) in diameter (threatening global destruction) by 2008. This initial mandate was completed by 2011.[267] in 2005, the original mandate of the us space guard was expanded by the george e.Brown jr. On near-earth object research, which expects nasa to detect 90% of neos 140 m (460 ft) in diameter or larger by this year. (Compare with the 20-meter chelyabinsk meteorite that fell on russia in 2013)[268]. As of january of this year [update], it is estimated that less than half of these have been found, but objects of this size have only encountered earth nearly once every 2,000 years.[269]
At in january of this year, nasa officials estimated that it would take 30 years to find all objects that meet the 140 m (460 ft) size criteria, more than twice the timeframe of the 2005 mandate. In june 2021, nasa authorized the development of the neo surveyor spacecraft to reduce the projected mandate duration to 10 years.[271][272]
Participation in advanced robotic missionsNasa has included planetary defense targets in several ongoing missions.
In 1999, nasa visited eros 433 with a near shoemaker spacecraft that entered its orbit in 2000, carefully photographing the asteroid with whatever instruments were in that hour.[273] near shoemaker was the first spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid, enhancing our understanding of these bodies and demonstrating our ability to read them in greater detail.[274]
Osiris-rex used his a set of tools to send radio tracking signals and capture optical images to bennu during familiarization with the asteroid, which will help nasa scientists to know its exact position in the solar protocol and its exact orbital path. Since bennu has the prospect of repeat encounters with the earth-moon system in the next 100-200 years, the accuracy obtained with the osiris-rex will allow scientists to better predict future gravitational collaborations between bennu and our planet and further changes in the bennu system. Flight path.[275][276]
The wise/neowise mission was launched by nasa jpl in 2009 as an infrared astronomical space telescope. In 2013, nasa repurposed it as a neowise mission to search for potentially threatening near-earth asteroids and comets; its mission has been extended until 2023. (Dart) to test possible planetary defense concepts.[279] dart was launched in november 2021 by the spacex falcon 9 spacecraft from california on a trajectory designed to collide with the asteroid dimorphos. Scientists have been trying to determine if the collision could change the path of the asteroid; a concept that could be applied to future planetary defense.[280] on september 26, 2022, dart reached its goal. 2-3 weeks after the impact, nasa declared the dart a success, confirming that man had shortened the orbital period of dimorphos around didymos by about 32 minutes, exceeding the predetermined success threshold of 73 seconds.[281][282]
Neo surveyor, formerly called the near-earth object camera (neocam), is a spaceborne infrared telescope being developed to survey the solar system for the presence of potentially unsafe asteroids.[283] the launch of the spacecraft is scheduled for 2026.
The study of unidentified air phenomena (from 2022 to the new millennium)
In june 2022, the head of the office of scientific nasa mission thomas zurbuchen confirmed that nasa is joining the hunt for unidentified flying objects (ufos)/unidentified air phenomena (uaps).[284] speaking to the national academies of sciences, engineering and medicine, zurbuchen said nasa will bring a scientific perspective to efforts already underway by the pentagon and intelligence agencies to sort through dozens of such sightings. He said it was a high-risk, high-return analysis" if nasa should not shirk, even if it is a controversial area of research.[285]
Nasa advisory board.
In response to the apollo 1 accident that ultimately killed three astronauts in 1967, congress directed nasa to form an aerospace safety advisory panel (asap) to advise the nasa administrator on safety and dangers at nasa. Air and space programs. After the shuttle columbia disaster, congress required asap to submit an annual report to the nasa administrator and congress. By 1971, nasa also established the space program advisory and the opinion and technology advisory to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were merged into the nasa advisory council (nac).[287] the nasa authorization legislation of 2014 reaffirmed the importance of an immediate decision.
National oceanic and atmospheric administration (noaa)
Nasa and noaa have collaborated for decades on creation, supply and operation of polar and geostationary weather satellites[288].Relationships typically include nasa, which develops space systems, launch ideas, https://keycodesoftware.com/ and ground control technology for satellites, and noaa, which manages systems and provides users with weather forecasting software. Several generations of noaa polar orbiting platforms have worked to take detailed low altitude weather images. Geostationary operational environmental observation satellites (goes) provide near real-time coverage of the western hemisphere to provide accurate and timely understanding of evolving weather events.[290]
Us space force
The united states space force (ussf) is the space service arm of the u.S. Military, and the national aeronautics and space administration (nasa) is an independent agency of the u.S. Government responsible for civilian spaceflight. Nasa and the space force's predecessors in the air force have a longstanding collaborative relationship, but the space force supports nasa launches from kennedy space center, cape canaveral space force station, and vandenberg space force base, including range support and rescue operations. From task force 45.[291] nasa and stellar forces are also cooperating on issues such as protecting the earth from asteroids.[292] nasa astronauts can be members of the space force, and colonel michael s. Hopkins, commander of spacex crew-1, was inducted into the space force from the international space station on december 18 of this year. In september of this year, space energies and nasa signed a memorandum of understanding that officially recognizes the joint role of both agencies. This new memorandum replaced a similar document signed in 2006 between nasa and air force space command.[296][297]
Usa. Geological survey
The landsat program is the oldest enterprise in providing satellite images of the earth. It is a joint program between nasa and the usgs.[298] on july 23, 1972, a satellite was launched to explore the resources of the earth. Anyway, it remained renamed landsat 1 in 1975. The last satellite of this series, landsat 9, was created on september 27, 2021.[300]
The instruments of the landsat satellites took millions of images. The images, archived in the united states and at landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for researching global changes and additions in agriculture, mapping, geology, forestry, regional planning, surveillance, and education as seen in america. Geological survey (usgs) site "earthexplorer". Interaction in the environment between nasa and the usgs includes the creation and delivery of the space system solution (satellite) to nasa, the launch of the satellite into orbit, and the usgs manages the system after it enters orbit. As of october 2022, nine satellites have been built, eight of which are successfully operating in orbit.
Nasa europe (esa)
Nasa is working with nasa europe on wide range of technological and research needs.[301] from participating in the space shuttle (spacelab missions) to starring roles in the artemis application (orion service module), esa and nasa have supported each agency's science and exploration missions. Esa spacecraft hosts a variety of nasa payloads, and nasa spacecraft hosts esa payloads . Agencies have developed common missions in such areas as heliophysics (eg solar orbiter)[302] and astronomy (hubble space telescope, james webb space telescope)[303]. Under the artemis gateway partnership, esa will provide the gateway with residential and refueling modems, as well as improved lunar communications. Nasa and esa continue to develop cooperation in the field of geosciences, including climate change, by entering into agreements to cooperate in a wide variety of missions, including the sentinel-6[306] series of spacecraft
Japan aerospace exploration agency ( jaxa)
Nasa and the japan aerospace exploration agency (jaxa) are collaborating on a number of space projects. Jaxa is a direct contributor to the artemis program, even the lunar gateway project. Jaxa's planned contributions to the gateway include the i-hab environmental and life support system, batteries, thermal controls and photo components, which have the potential to be integrated into the module by the european space agency (esa) prior to launch. These capabilities are key to the stable operation of the gateway during periods of one hour with a crew and without passing a crew. Nasa has contributed to the jaxa satellites in reverse. Japanese instruments fly on nasa's terra and aqua satellites, and nasa sensors have flown on previous japanese earth observation missions. The nasa-jaxa global precipitation measurement mission was launched in 2014 and includes sensors supplied by nasa and jaxa on a nasa satellite launched on a jaxa rocket.The mission provides frequent and accurate rainfall measurements around the globe for use by scientists and weather forecasters.[309] international space station since september 1993.[310] the agencies used launch systems from both countries to deliver elements of the station into orbit. Cosmonauts and cosmonauts jointly serve different elements of the station. Both countries provide access to the station via launch systems, marking the unique role of the russian federation as the sole provider of crew and cargo delivery after the decommissioning of the space shuttle 7 years ago and also before the start of nasa crew and cots flights. In july 2022, nasa and roscosmos signed a space station sharing agreement, allowing crew from each country to use systems provided by the other. The current geopolitical conditions after 2022 make it unlikely that cooperation will extend to other programs like artemis or lunar exploration.[312]
Indian space research organization
in september 2014 nasa and the indian space research organization (isro) signed an agreement to cooperate and launch a joint nasa-iso synthetic aperature radar (nisar) radar mission. The launch of the mission is scheduled for 2024. Nasa will provide the mission with l-band synthetic aperture radar, high-speed communications subsystem for science data, gps receivers, solid state recorder and payload data subsystem. Isro provides spacecraft bus, s-band radar, memory card rocket and launch engineering services.[313][314]
Artemis agreements
Artemis agreements have been made defining the basis for partnerships in the peaceful exploration and functionality of the moon, mars, asteroids and comets. The agreements were created by nasa and the united states department of state and are formalized as a series of bilateral agreements between the united states and participating countries. As of september 2022, 21 countries have signed agreements. These are australia, bahrain, brazil, canada, colombia, france, israel, italy, japan, republic of korea, luxembourg, mexico, new zealand, poland, romania, kingdom of saudi arabia, singapore, ukraine, united arab emirates. , United kingdom and the united states.[317][318]
China national space administration
The wolf amendment was made by the us congress into law in 2011 and does not allow nasa to enter into direct bilateral cooperation with the government of the people's republic of china - and affiliated organizations with china, such as the china national space administration, without the explicit permission of congress and the federal bureau of investigation. Since then, the law has been renewed annually by inclusion in the annual accounts of appropriations. . Some hypergolic propellants, such as hydrazine, are very toxic before combustion, but decompose into less harmful substances after combustion. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels such as kerosene emit co2 and soot in their exhaust gases.[320] however, carbon dioxide emissions are negligible compared to emissions from other sources the united states consumed approximately 803 million us gallons (3.0 million m3) of liquid propellant as of 2014, while the first step of a single falcon 9 rocket burns approximately 27,000 gallons us (95 m3) of kerosene per launch. [322] even if the falcon 9 were to launch at any point, it would only account for 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions) on that day. In addition, the exhaust of engines running on lox and lh2, such as ssme, is almost one hundred percent water vapor.[323] nasa solved the environmental turmoil with its canceled constellation program, exactly in line with the 2011 national environmental policy act. In contrast, ion thrusters use harmless noble gases, including xenon, to propel them. In addition, in 2010, the research science building was awarded a leed gold rating. On may 8, 2003, nasa was recognized by the environmental protection agency as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas for power generation at one of its facilities at the goddard space flight site, greenbelt, maryland.[328]
Last year nasa along with other companies including sensor coating systems, pratt